The international community in a bid to control the problem of GHG emissions, particularly that of carbon dioxide, hammered out the Kyoto Protocol in 1997, whereby 37 developed nations (called Annexe-I countries) agreed to roll back their GHG emissions by 5.2 percent (on an average) of their 1990 concerned levels. The US however did not ratify the protocol, though it announced some voluntary emission cuts.
Background and Objectives of the Summit
The Kyoto Protocol is to expire in 2012 and the 15th United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009, at Copenhagen, Denmark (December 7th to 18th) (COP 15) was held to chalk out the next phase of climate control actions, regarding GHG emissions, at a global level. Expectations were high with 192 countries participating in the international forum to decide the future of the Earth and that of mankind.
The United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Bali in 2007 agreed on negotiations for a stringent international climate change pact, to be finalized at the December 2009 Copenhagen meet.
The key issues up for consideration at the COP 15 meet included the following:
•Mitigation (reduction of GHG emissions)
•Adaptation ( coping with the effects of climate change)
•Finance and Technology ( provision of assistance to the developing nations, in their efforts at emission containment)
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
A UNFCC report dated 21st October 2009, revealed that the rise in GHG emissions from the industrialized nations has continued unabated from 2000 to 2007, the overall growth figure being 3% in the concerned period for the 40 industrialized nations with reporting obligations to the Convention. From 2006 to 2007 the said increase was 1 percent.
The consistently upward trend of GHG emissions from developed nations, despite a decline in economic activities (as an after-effect of the recent global recession) is a serious cause for concern, according to UNFCCC Executive Secretary, Yvo de Boer. This highlighted the need for a global political consensus for reaching a comprehensive, effective and fair climate change deal at COP 15. UNFCCC data also supports the gradual build up of the global carbon trade market in 2008, as a means of addressing the emission issue, as suggested in the Kyoto Protocol.
Comparative Pollution Figures
China is the world's biggest GHG emitter (20.7 percent of global emissions) followed by the US (accounting for 15.5 percent of global emissions). Global emission percentages for the African Union, European Union, India, Japan, Gulf countries and island nations are 8.1percent, 11.8 percent, 5 percent, 3.3 percent, 2.3 percent and 0.6 percent respectively. Per-capita emission figures are considerably lower for countries like India and China as compared to that of the developed nations.
COP 15 discussions - A Round-up
Much drama unfolded in the two weeks of talks aimed at forging a new global climate treaty at Copenhagen, the high point being the face-off between the post industrialized developed economies (like Europe and the US) and the emerging, industrializing nations like China, India and Brazil.
The industrialized countries demanded all major developing nations to open up their domestic climate actions for international scrutiny or MRV (Monitoring, Review and Verification).
This proposal was met with strong resentment from the emerging economies, who stated that their internal climate action plans were all voluntary disclosures and that they were not bound by any international treaty. India specifically opined that the developed nations were first themselves responsible for the present environmental mess and deeper emission cuts were not feasible for India, as it needed faster and cheaper growth, for tackling issues like poverty and underdevelopment. However, it also made a declaration of voluntary reduction of 20-25 percent of its emission intensity, by 2020. Similar measures were also announced by Brazil and China. China echoed India's sentiments in speaking for the G-77 nations.
However, a difference of opinion arose in the group of 120 developing nations represented by the G-77 and China; one of its members, Tuvalu, a small Pacific island country, proposed a new international treaty on the lines of the Kyoto Protocol, ostensibly to make the US accountable via a global treaty. It also called for "verifiable, nationally appropriate mitigation" measures from major developing nations. The proposal was summarily rejected by G-77 and China. African nations voiced their concern about sinister efforts at the summit at abandoning the Kyoto Protocol (which put legally bound GHG emission limits on industrialized nations sparing the developing economies).
The developing nations demanded deeper emission cuts, ranging from 25 percent to 45 percent by 2020, from the wealthier countries, along with the availability of technology and resources from them to help contain the effects of climate change. The different parties steadfastly held on to their demands and talks almost hit a dead-end.
It should be noted that the Annexe-1 countries (the developed nations) have done precious little towards the realization of their obligatory 5 percent emission reduction by 2012 (under the Kyoto Protocol) and the US never ratified the Kyoto Protocol on growth considerations, but are part of the UNFCCC process.
Buckling under US diplomatic pressure, India finally agreed to sit for discussions regarding international scrutiny of its domestic GHG emission curbing actions at COP15. As if on cue, the US secretary of state, Hillary Clinton, announced America's commitment to work towards raising $100 billion annually for creation of a fund by 2020, for assisting the developing nations engaged in coping with climate changes.
Money pledged to the developing nations towards emission control was another key element of the global climate talks. The European Union pledged around $3.5 billion annually, for a period of 3 years and the US, around $1.2 billion in 2009. The US also announced multinational efforts worth $350 million for transferring clean technology to the developing nations.
However, the amount pledged is way below the requirement, as estimated by global agencies like the World Bank and the International Energy Agency. Differences in opinion also exist about the mode of grant financing; while donors want most of the sum to come from carbon trade levies, recipients want it to come from public money.
The Copenhagen Accord
The newly minted Copenhagen Accord is a broad, legally nonbinding, accord put together by China, India, South Africa, Brazil and the US. The Accord was finally accepted by the 'Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change' on 19th December 2009, as reported by Reuters. UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon announced that the accord would come into 'immediate operational effect'. He also opined that, the Copenhagen accord ought to transform itself into a legally binding treaty in 2010. The accord is still being hotly debated upon by nations the world over, and it is still not clear as to how many nations would finally become signatories to the deal.
The Copenhagen accord supports deep emission cuts aimed at limiting the rise in global temperatures below 2 degrees Celsius, as compared to the pre-industrial levels. [In June 2009, most developing nations including the G8 group agreed on containing the average global temperature rise within 2°C (3.6F), as compared to the pre-industrial level. However, some island nations have lobbied for a 1.5°C temperature bar and around 85 percent emission cuts by 2050].
No definite percentage of emission reduction has been declared on behalf of the European nations in the accord and the US still remains outside the purview of the Kyoto Protocol. The accord proposes a legally binding treaty on climate change by 2010. Mitigation plans (emission cuts for the developed nations and voluntary disclosures for developing nations) for both the developed and the developing nations are not legally binding under the current accord.
The accord pledges flow of adequate, sustainable and predictable financial aid and technology from the developed nations towards the developing countries to cater to their climate adaptation needs (in particular the LDCs, small island nations and the African countries). Developed nations have jointly agreed towards raising $100 billion annually, by 2020, for the developing countries. They are also to provide around US $ 30 billion in 2010-2012 to developing countries, towards their adaptation and mitigation needs, on the GHG emissions issue.
Funding will reportedly come from various sources, including private, public, multilateral and bilateral financing. A large chunk of funds are set to flow from the Copenhagen Green Climate Fund. The accord also announces the incorporation of a technology mechanism for accelerating the process of technology development and transfer to the developing nations.
Emerging economies have been asked to continuously monitor their climate mitigation efforts and report the same to the UN every 2 years. Some international checks have also been proposed, with due allowance for respecting the national sovereignty of nations. No deadlines have been given in this matter yet, reflecting China's hard-line stance on the issue.
Developed nations have also agreed to provide financial assistance for controlling deforestation in developing countries. The accord also speaks of the usage of the carbon markets as a cost effective climate mitigation measure, without going into any detailed analysis.
Political Observations
US president, Barack Obama has termed the agreement 'meaningful' and added that efforts would be on towards reaching a significant emission control regime in the near future. British prime minister, Gordon Brown has stressed on the need to quickly follow up the accord with a legally binding agreement on emission control. The accord has come under criticism from EU Commission President, Jose Manuel Barroso for its nonbinding nature. China expressed happiness with the deal, while Brazil marked it a disappointment, if not a total failure and called for the need to resolve unsettled issues like specific emission cuts at the earliest. Lumumba Stanislaus Di-Aping, heading the G-77 termed it as a suicide pact for the African nations. Similar sentiments were echoed by island nation Tuvalu and Maldives, who wanted the temperature bar to be 1.5 degrees, fearing imminent danger from rising sea levels if immediate stringent emission curbs were not laid. COP15 President, the Danish Prime Minister, Lars Løkke Rasmussen has expressed satisfaction at the developments but Yvo de Boer, Head of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat was however not upbeat about the outcome.
An Overview
The Copenhagen accord can at best be termed as an operating framework for enabling future climate negotiations. The emergence of a weak climate declaration was also somewhat expected as per observations of political leaders attending the APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation) summit in Singapore in November 2009. US President Barack Obama observed, in the context of the Copenhagen talks that, more confidence building measures are required among the LDCs, developed and emerging nations before reaching a legally binding international treaty on climate change.
Considering the serious dimensions that our climate problems have reached, expectations were high on reaching a more meaningful deal; but two weeks of frantic discussions failed to resolve the conflict of interests among the LDCs, developed and developing nations and a watered down agreement was all that could be salvaged for keeping alive the line of hope for the future of our planet.
Background and Objectives of the Summit
The Kyoto Protocol is to expire in 2012 and the 15th United Nations Climate Change Conference 2009, at Copenhagen, Denmark (December 7th to 18th) (COP 15) was held to chalk out the next phase of climate control actions, regarding GHG emissions, at a global level. Expectations were high with 192 countries participating in the international forum to decide the future of the Earth and that of mankind.
The United Nations Climate Change Conference held in Bali in 2007 agreed on negotiations for a stringent international climate change pact, to be finalized at the December 2009 Copenhagen meet.
The key issues up for consideration at the COP 15 meet included the following:
•Mitigation (reduction of GHG emissions)
•Adaptation ( coping with the effects of climate change)
•Finance and Technology ( provision of assistance to the developing nations, in their efforts at emission containment)
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
A UNFCC report dated 21st October 2009, revealed that the rise in GHG emissions from the industrialized nations has continued unabated from 2000 to 2007, the overall growth figure being 3% in the concerned period for the 40 industrialized nations with reporting obligations to the Convention. From 2006 to 2007 the said increase was 1 percent.
The consistently upward trend of GHG emissions from developed nations, despite a decline in economic activities (as an after-effect of the recent global recession) is a serious cause for concern, according to UNFCCC Executive Secretary, Yvo de Boer. This highlighted the need for a global political consensus for reaching a comprehensive, effective and fair climate change deal at COP 15. UNFCCC data also supports the gradual build up of the global carbon trade market in 2008, as a means of addressing the emission issue, as suggested in the Kyoto Protocol.
Comparative Pollution Figures
China is the world's biggest GHG emitter (20.7 percent of global emissions) followed by the US (accounting for 15.5 percent of global emissions). Global emission percentages for the African Union, European Union, India, Japan, Gulf countries and island nations are 8.1percent, 11.8 percent, 5 percent, 3.3 percent, 2.3 percent and 0.6 percent respectively. Per-capita emission figures are considerably lower for countries like India and China as compared to that of the developed nations.
COP 15 discussions - A Round-up
Much drama unfolded in the two weeks of talks aimed at forging a new global climate treaty at Copenhagen, the high point being the face-off between the post industrialized developed economies (like Europe and the US) and the emerging, industrializing nations like China, India and Brazil.
The industrialized countries demanded all major developing nations to open up their domestic climate actions for international scrutiny or MRV (Monitoring, Review and Verification).
This proposal was met with strong resentment from the emerging economies, who stated that their internal climate action plans were all voluntary disclosures and that they were not bound by any international treaty. India specifically opined that the developed nations were first themselves responsible for the present environmental mess and deeper emission cuts were not feasible for India, as it needed faster and cheaper growth, for tackling issues like poverty and underdevelopment. However, it also made a declaration of voluntary reduction of 20-25 percent of its emission intensity, by 2020. Similar measures were also announced by Brazil and China. China echoed India's sentiments in speaking for the G-77 nations.
However, a difference of opinion arose in the group of 120 developing nations represented by the G-77 and China; one of its members, Tuvalu, a small Pacific island country, proposed a new international treaty on the lines of the Kyoto Protocol, ostensibly to make the US accountable via a global treaty. It also called for "verifiable, nationally appropriate mitigation" measures from major developing nations. The proposal was summarily rejected by G-77 and China. African nations voiced their concern about sinister efforts at the summit at abandoning the Kyoto Protocol (which put legally bound GHG emission limits on industrialized nations sparing the developing economies).
The developing nations demanded deeper emission cuts, ranging from 25 percent to 45 percent by 2020, from the wealthier countries, along with the availability of technology and resources from them to help contain the effects of climate change. The different parties steadfastly held on to their demands and talks almost hit a dead-end.
It should be noted that the Annexe-1 countries (the developed nations) have done precious little towards the realization of their obligatory 5 percent emission reduction by 2012 (under the Kyoto Protocol) and the US never ratified the Kyoto Protocol on growth considerations, but are part of the UNFCCC process.
Buckling under US diplomatic pressure, India finally agreed to sit for discussions regarding international scrutiny of its domestic GHG emission curbing actions at COP15. As if on cue, the US secretary of state, Hillary Clinton, announced America's commitment to work towards raising $100 billion annually for creation of a fund by 2020, for assisting the developing nations engaged in coping with climate changes.
Money pledged to the developing nations towards emission control was another key element of the global climate talks. The European Union pledged around $3.5 billion annually, for a period of 3 years and the US, around $1.2 billion in 2009. The US also announced multinational efforts worth $350 million for transferring clean technology to the developing nations.
However, the amount pledged is way below the requirement, as estimated by global agencies like the World Bank and the International Energy Agency. Differences in opinion also exist about the mode of grant financing; while donors want most of the sum to come from carbon trade levies, recipients want it to come from public money.
The Copenhagen Accord
The newly minted Copenhagen Accord is a broad, legally nonbinding, accord put together by China, India, South Africa, Brazil and the US. The Accord was finally accepted by the 'Conference of the Parties to the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change' on 19th December 2009, as reported by Reuters. UN Secretary-General, Ban Ki-moon announced that the accord would come into 'immediate operational effect'. He also opined that, the Copenhagen accord ought to transform itself into a legally binding treaty in 2010. The accord is still being hotly debated upon by nations the world over, and it is still not clear as to how many nations would finally become signatories to the deal.
The Copenhagen accord supports deep emission cuts aimed at limiting the rise in global temperatures below 2 degrees Celsius, as compared to the pre-industrial levels. [In June 2009, most developing nations including the G8 group agreed on containing the average global temperature rise within 2°C (3.6F), as compared to the pre-industrial level. However, some island nations have lobbied for a 1.5°C temperature bar and around 85 percent emission cuts by 2050].
No definite percentage of emission reduction has been declared on behalf of the European nations in the accord and the US still remains outside the purview of the Kyoto Protocol. The accord proposes a legally binding treaty on climate change by 2010. Mitigation plans (emission cuts for the developed nations and voluntary disclosures for developing nations) for both the developed and the developing nations are not legally binding under the current accord.
The accord pledges flow of adequate, sustainable and predictable financial aid and technology from the developed nations towards the developing countries to cater to their climate adaptation needs (in particular the LDCs, small island nations and the African countries). Developed nations have jointly agreed towards raising $100 billion annually, by 2020, for the developing countries. They are also to provide around US $ 30 billion in 2010-2012 to developing countries, towards their adaptation and mitigation needs, on the GHG emissions issue.
Funding will reportedly come from various sources, including private, public, multilateral and bilateral financing. A large chunk of funds are set to flow from the Copenhagen Green Climate Fund. The accord also announces the incorporation of a technology mechanism for accelerating the process of technology development and transfer to the developing nations.
Emerging economies have been asked to continuously monitor their climate mitigation efforts and report the same to the UN every 2 years. Some international checks have also been proposed, with due allowance for respecting the national sovereignty of nations. No deadlines have been given in this matter yet, reflecting China's hard-line stance on the issue.
Developed nations have also agreed to provide financial assistance for controlling deforestation in developing countries. The accord also speaks of the usage of the carbon markets as a cost effective climate mitigation measure, without going into any detailed analysis.
Political Observations
US president, Barack Obama has termed the agreement 'meaningful' and added that efforts would be on towards reaching a significant emission control regime in the near future. British prime minister, Gordon Brown has stressed on the need to quickly follow up the accord with a legally binding agreement on emission control. The accord has come under criticism from EU Commission President, Jose Manuel Barroso for its nonbinding nature. China expressed happiness with the deal, while Brazil marked it a disappointment, if not a total failure and called for the need to resolve unsettled issues like specific emission cuts at the earliest. Lumumba Stanislaus Di-Aping, heading the G-77 termed it as a suicide pact for the African nations. Similar sentiments were echoed by island nation Tuvalu and Maldives, who wanted the temperature bar to be 1.5 degrees, fearing imminent danger from rising sea levels if immediate stringent emission curbs were not laid. COP15 President, the Danish Prime Minister, Lars Løkke Rasmussen has expressed satisfaction at the developments but Yvo de Boer, Head of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change secretariat was however not upbeat about the outcome.
An Overview
The Copenhagen accord can at best be termed as an operating framework for enabling future climate negotiations. The emergence of a weak climate declaration was also somewhat expected as per observations of political leaders attending the APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation) summit in Singapore in November 2009. US President Barack Obama observed, in the context of the Copenhagen talks that, more confidence building measures are required among the LDCs, developed and emerging nations before reaching a legally binding international treaty on climate change.
Considering the serious dimensions that our climate problems have reached, expectations were high on reaching a more meaningful deal; but two weeks of frantic discussions failed to resolve the conflict of interests among the LDCs, developed and developing nations and a watered down agreement was all that could be salvaged for keeping alive the line of hope for the future of our planet.
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